Caves

Caves were special places to the ancient Maya. The Maya connected caves with a number of things, including the underworld, mountains, water, and corn -- which the Maya thought the creator gods had taken from a mountain to make people. Caves were also also places for burial and for holding rituals. Some of the more famous caves that the ancient Maya used are Naj Tunich and Actun Tunichil Muknal (Cave of the Crystal Sepulcher.)

The Mayan Name for Cave

It's thought that the ancient Mayan name for cave is either ch'en or ch'een, though people studying ancient Mayan writing are still making sure – and you may also find ch'é'en. (To keep things simple, this post will just use ch'een.) This word doesn't just mean cave though. It means a lot of other things too -- well, rock shelter, cenote, canyon, hole, and spring, for example.

The word also seems to somehow be connected to the idea of location or community. One view on this can be seen in Tikal: Paleoecology of an Ancient Maya City. This view says ch'een’s meanings include "city center" and “water cave.”

Added Features

The ancient Maya often changed the caves they used. One thing they would do is paint images of animals as well as people in the caves. Another thing they would do is carve things like heads, skulls, footprints and geometric shapes into the cave. They would also build things in them like tombs, stairways, platforms, and shrines.

Functions

In the ancient Maya view of the way the world worked, caves had a lot of different functions. I've separated the functions I've come across below.

Source of Water, Rain, Corn, and Clouds

The Maya thought that water, clouds and rain, came from caves. (The idea of clouds from caves isn’t so strange as it may seem -- the Maya area has tropical locations, and it is in tropical locations that clouds can form and come out of caves.) You may also find the view that there was a belief among the ancient Maya that lightning came from caves too.

Place of Sacrifice/Burial

One use the ancient Maya had for caves was as a place to put the dead. And it wasn’t just people who had died naturally. The Maya would also bury people they had killed as sacrifices in caves -- in fact, they would also go to really hard to get to sections of caves to sacrifice people. (The Maya also killed animals in caves as sacrifices.) It may even be the ancient Maya had caves for burying the bodies of their sacrifices as well as caves for burying people who had died but hadn't been sacrifices.

Source of Formations

The Maya used cave formations in rituals and not just in caves. There was a practice where a tall stalactite or stalagmite would be taken from where it formed and set up somewhere else. The stalagmite or stalactite could be set up inside the cave it formed in, just in a different spot – or was taken outside to be set up somewhere else.

Supernatural Doorway

The Maya thought that caves were connected with the Underworld. There are different views on how exactly the Maya thought the two were connected. One view says they thought caves were doorways that connected the human world to the underworld.  (There's also a view that the ancient Maya thought caves were parts of the underworld, not just doorways to it.) They thought that gods from the underworld sent things out through caves. (There's also a different view that caves were ways to talk to creator grandparent gods – and that these gods were believed to control the sea. Yet another view says that the ancient Maya thought that more than one rain god lived in caves.) The Maya would give the gods of the underworld offerings in these caves. 

Possible Use: Period Ending Rituals

One specific ways the ancient Maya may have used caves as places to have ritual celebrations – archaeologists have found evidence that these ritual celebrations were celebrating other rituals for “period ending.” (Period ending rituals were rituals for when a certain period of time had become complete, like a b'akt'un – a period of 144,000 days.)

Consideration: Diphrastic Kennings

The ancient Maya had special phrases that you may see called diphrastic kennings. These were pairs of words that sounded close to each other – but meant two different things -- that when put together were a way of saying an idea.

For example, one diphrastic kenning that had ch’een in it was chan ch’een. This translates as “sky cave” but means "world" or "universe." That is, all of reality. (There’s a view that says it’s possible that when the ancient Maya wrote ch’een, they were just using a short form of the diphrastic phrases that had ch’een in it.)

References:

Mesoweb: "The PARI Journal" Volume 17 Issue 4: "A Carved Speleothem Monument at Yaxchilan, Mexico"; Christophe Helmke; 2017

YouTube: "How caves showed me the connection between darkness and imagination | Holley Moyes | TEDxVienna"; TEDx Talks; November 22, 2016

Google Books: "Tikal: Paleoecology of an Ancient Maya City"; David L. Lentz, Nicholas P. Dunning, Vernon L. Scarborough (editors); 2015

Google Books: "Maya Pilgrimage to Ritual Landscapes: Insights from Archaeology, History, and Ethnography"; Joel. W. Palka; 2014

Google Books: "Sacred Darkness: A Global Perspective on the Ritual Use of Caves"; Holley Moyes (editor); 2012

Western Oregon University: "From Out of the Earth: Water, Maize and Caves in Ancient Maya Myth and Religion"; Clara Scillian Kennedy; June 13, 2011

University of Central Florida: STARS: "New Perspectives On The Quatrefoil In Classic Maya Iconography The Center And The Portal"; Rachel K. Egan; 2011

Google Books: "Exploring Maya Ritual Caves: Dark Secrets from the Maya Underworld"; Stanislav Chládek; 2011

"Google Books: "Maya Sacred Geography and the Creator Deities"; Karen Bassie-Sweet; 2008

Google Books: "Maya Calendar Origins: Monuments, Mythistory, and the Materialization of Time"; Prudence M. Rice; 2007

Mesoweb: "Maya Creator Gods"; Karen Bassie; 2002

UC Merced: Holley Moyes: Belize Cave Project

The Ocellated Turkey

Author's note: This post was last updated on 10/03/19

 Photo by George Harrison, published by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Related to -- but very different from -- the turkey you might know, ocellated turkeys are some very eye-catching birds, as you can see from the photo above. They live in north Belize, Guatemala (in the Petén region,) and the Mexican states of Quintana Roo, Yucatán, and Campeche (though people have seen them in east Tabasco and northeast Chiapas too.) The ancient Maya thought this bird had supernatural power.

Names

"Kutz" in glyphs. Free-hand drawn
image by me using FAMSI's
copy of the Madrid Codex and the 2016
reference below as guides.

When looking for their scientific name, you will find the bird has two: Meleagris ocellata and Agriocharis ocellata. The second name, Agriocharis ocellata, was the first name the ocellated turkeys were given and is not used for them anymore.

One name for the ocellated turkey that the ancient Maya may have had in the Classic Period -- in the southern lowlands -- is ak'ach. This word has been figured to mean "turkey hen" but there's a theory that it might have been used for male and female ocellated turkeys.

Another word, which so far has been seen only in Postclassic writings -- the Dresden Codex and the Madrid Codex -- is kutz. This word may have been a word used in areas where the Yucatec Mayan language was at.

Features
Female ocellated turkeys grow to be around 6.6 to 8.8 pounds, while the males grow to be 8.8 to 11 pounds.  The birds have bright, light blue necks and heads, and have red-orange eye-lids. On top of each bird's head is an extension called a crown. On their heads and necks are nodules or caruncles that come in yellow, orange, red, red-orange or even somewhat blue. (Caruncles tend to be lighter in color the higher up they are.) Both genders of bird also have red or red-pink legs (I've seen both stated), the males' including spurs. Then, of course, there's the feathers.

Ocellated turkeys's feathers are iridescent. (Females' iridescent feathers are not as strongly brilliant as males'.) As for the coloring of feathers with iridescence, Specific descriptions of the iridescent colors differ a bit. Here's a list of iridescent colors from the Cornell Lab of Orinthology's website Neotropical Birds: bronze, gold, black, blue, and green. (Another section of the site does not include black, though.)

At the tail feathers' ends are blue spots with a black ring around them. This is the "ocellated" part of the name "ocellated turkey". The spots are supposed to look like eyes and are called ocelli, a word that comes from "oculus," Latin for "eye."


Function and Sourcing
Like other animals like snakes and jaguars, based of of their observations, the ancient Maya thought that ocellated turkeys were birds that had power. They used the ocellated turkey in their religion.

Drawings from "Animal Figures in the Maya Codices" of ocellated
turkeys. When compared to 93a and 91a of the Madrid Codex, they
look like good copies.

How did the Maya get their ocellated turkeys for their religious practices? A known way was to catch them -- the Madrid Codex has two images (page 91a and page 93a) that show them being caught using snares as well as baskets. 

It's possible that the ancient Maya had a practice of catching and raising ocellated turkeys. (There's a theory that there were Maya at the site of Mayapán who had flocks of them!) However, the birds don't like being kept and won't start families if they are.

Consideration: A Wahy?
In the Classic Period, it looks like the ancient Maya may have seen the ocellated turkey as a sort of wahy. (Wahys are spirits that, depending on the type, were either mascots or protectors of dynasties or were a weapon. (On a related note, Postclassic images that include ocellated turkeys seem to see them as more good beings.)

References
Google Books: "Wildlife Ecology and Management in Mexico"; Raul Valdez, J. Alfonso Ortega-S.; 2019

Mesoweb: "The Pari Jounral" Volume 16, Issue 4: "The Ocellated Turkey in Maya Thought"; Ana Luisa Izquierdo y de la Cueva, Maria Elena Vega Villalobos; Spring 2016

Five College Compass: Digital Collections: "Birds and Environmental Change in the Maya Area"; Peter Stuart; May 2015

Google Books: The Archaeology of Mesoamerican Animals"; Christopher M. Götz, Kitty F. Emery (editor); 2013

Mesoweb: "Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs: Workshop Handbook"; Harri Kettunen, Christophe Helmke; 2008

Google Books: "The Turkey: An American Story"; Andrew F. Smith; 2006

Cornell University: Neotropical Birds: Ocellated Turkey Meleagris ocellata: Appearance

Cornell University: Neotropical Birds: Ocellated Turkey Meleagris ocellata: Distribution

ITIS Standard Report Page: Meleagris ocellata

The Free Dictionary: Ocelli

Image Credit:
US Fish and Wildlife Service National Digital Library: search result: Occelated Turkey
(Tip: I had a bit of difficulty using this site, as the links to picture's personal pages wouldn't load everything and the download button wasn't working. What worked for me is to save the image to favorites (you don't need to sign up,) then go to favorites and pick your preferred download option. Both worked for me. However, when I tried again later, the site wasn't working. You might have to experiment yourself.)

Project Gutenberg: "Animal Figures in the Maya Codices"; Alfred M. Tozzer; Glover M. Allen; 1910

The Jester God

A piece of stone ("jadeite/omphacite, iron ore") worked to look like the Jester
God's bird form. It dates to the 600s AD to 700s AD and comes from either
Mexico or Guatemala.  Image from the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, and cropped by Glas Ysgrifen -- me.

"The Jester God" is a nickname created by the well-known Maya expert Linda Schele in the '70s for a figure in ancient Maya art whose headdress looks like a jester's hat. From a symbol worn as a jewel to a supernatural being of various things – to both of these possibilities -- there are all kinds of views on what the ancient Maya thought of the Jester God. This article will touch on the three forms as well as some of the views on it.

Forms

This image shows a jade pendant from Guatemala or Mexico
that dates to 200 AD to 600 AD. The top of the man's head has
 what the image's description calls a "beaded tassel" which it
says relates to the Jester God. From the Yale University
Art Gallery.

The Jester God is known for being drawn in three ways, known as forms. These forms are the fish or piscine form, the bird or avian form, and the maize or anthropomorphic form. The ancient Maya didn't always keep these forms separate when they drew them -- there was a practice of mixing the forms in different ways. (However, not everyone thinks these are three forms of the same being. Instead, some think these are three beings that are separate from each other.)

Anthropomorphic Form

Though spoken of as one, the maize/anthropomorphic form is actually two forms. The book Maya Imagery, Architecture, and Activity describes the one as like a corn kernel made a bit human. It also says other is a whole ear of corn that has been made somewhat human -- and unlike the other version, it has a more "human" looking face.

The Name of Paper also says there are two types of the anthropomorphic form. However, it says that the plant is a flower blossom – maybe a corn blossom – and that it doesn’t always have a human face. (It also says that when the Maya did draw it as a face, it was from the side.)

Fish Form

This form looks like a shark that's blooming. It has spiral pupils, which the ancient Maya drew for creatures connected to the underworld. Its forehead has two separate sections. This form has large nostrils and a snout that either goes upwards or is straight out. The Maya also drew it with "face fins" --  though you may see them called gills -- which you'll find either on the form's chin or not far from its cheek. Another notable feature was its teeth, which like its nose the Maya had two ways of drawing: one was to draw just one triangle-shaped tooth and the other was to draw serrated teeth. As for its tail, the Maya (when they drew it just as itself, without adding in other forms) drew it so that it was over the form's head.

The Name of Paper, which as mentioned above says the forms are separate beings, calls the fish form the Xoc Adornment.

Bird Form

This form tends to have square-ish eyes and square-ish pupils. Its nose is a “beak-snout” that has big nostrils. Like the fish form, the bird form's teeth too are also a notable feature and could be several shapes: one of the shape's the bird forms could be was similar to fangs. The Maya also would draw a mirror on this form’s forehead that fits she shape of the forehead. There's a theory that this form was, in its unique way, a fig tree. The Name of Paper describes this form as the "true" form of the Jester God.

Function

Different people have different ideas about what the Jester God was to the ancient Maya. You may see sources say that it was a living version of the world tree -- which also meant it was connected to the idea of "center," rulers, jade, and corn. You may also find descriptions that say it was the essence of paper items used for rituals -- that it was a living version of these things.

A view within the idea that the Jester God was a symbol (you may see it described as a symbol that was animate -- held life) of rulership says that Maya rulers wore images of the Jester God's bird form as a jewel on their heads in various ways, including on headbands -- and a ruler could wear more than one Jester God. 

There's also an outlook within the idea of the Jester God being connected to rulers that says paper headbands -- called sak hu’un, white paper -- with the Jester God's bird form on it were part of a ruler becoming a ruler officially. One theory I saw said sak hu'un were used for when a ruler got their ruler's name, and another said that they were used to make a ruler divine.

In the view that the Jester God was worn as a jewel by rulers, you will also find it said that it was very common to carve Jester God jewels out of green-colored stones they valued, such as jade. On a related note, the Maya would draw a Jester God jewel (using any one of the three forms) as part of the ancient Maya glyph for ruler, ajaw. They drew the jewel on the forehead of the face that also made up part of the glyph. (However, The Name of Paper questions the accuracy of saying Jester God jewels are the bird form and instead thinks they look more like the fish form -- which it calls the Xoc Adornment.)

This clay figurine's left cheek has a symbol on it
that its description says is connected to the Jester God.
It dates to between 600 AD and 900 AD and comes from
Mexico. From the Yale University Art Gallery.

The Maya had a practice where they would label items they'd drawn with glyphs. This included when they drew something that was paper: there are times when the ancient Maya drew the Jester God's bird form as part of items that are made of paper, such as codices. (And perhaps may be why it was drawn on the paper headbands of rulers.)

Speaking of paper, the ancient Maya also used the bird form in their glyphic writing. The bird form's head was used as a "head variant" glyph or as the main part of a head variant glyph – I have seen both descriptions. Either way, the ancient Mayan word this particular head variant glyph is huun or hu’n, depending on the conclusion of the person reconstructing the pronunciation -- I will be using huun.) Huun means a world of related things, including "paper,” “fig tree” (amate,) "book," and "headband."

Consideration: The Principal Bird Deity

Drawings of the Jester God made in the Classic Period have the same face as a supernatural being archaeologists call the Principal Bird Deity. In fact, it looks like these two a connection -- one idea is that the Jester God’s bird form came from the Principal Bird Deity.

Another Consideration: "Ux Yop Huun"

In various places, archaeologists have found a phrase: "ux yop huun." (You may see this phrase written as "ux yop hu'n.") One translation of the phrase is "Three Leaf Paper." The head of the Jester God's bird form  either is or is the "main part" of a head variant glyph for the huun part of the phrase. There's a theory that this might be the bird form's name -- depending on the source, you may read that it may have been or actually was the name for all three forms.

Ux yop huun may also be a name for a Juun Ajaw, whose name means One Lord. Juun Ajaw is one of the Hero Twins (also known as the Headband Twins.) If you have read or read about the Popol Vuh will have heard of that book's version of Juun Ajaw: Hunahpu/Jun Aj Puuh/Jun Ajpu. Jun Ajaw is known for shooting a giant bird with his blowgun. The Maya also liked to draw him with a paper headband.

References:

University of Calgary: "A Study of Dress and Identity in the Late Classic Maya Court"; Cara Grace Tremain;August 2017 (This will download when clicked.)

Google Books: "The Origins of Maya States"; Loa P.Traxler, Robert J. Sharer (editors); 2016

Mesoweb: "The PARI Journal"Volume 15, No. 4: "Once and Future Kings: Classic Maya GeopoliticsandMythic History on the Initial Series from Uaxactun"; Nicholas P.Carter; Spring 2015

Leiden University: "Personhood in MayaArt: A Theorhetical Perspective"; Laura Ann Osorio; March 3, 2015

Google Books: "Maya Imagery, Architecture, an Activity:Space and Spatial Analysis in Art History"; Maline D. Werness-Rude, Kaylee R. Spencer (editors); 2015

The University of Texas at Austin: Texas Scholar Works:University of Texas Libraries: "Sacrificing the Jaguar Baby :understanding a classic Maya myth on codex-style pottery"; PennySteinbach; May 2015 (Click on the PDF icon for it to download.)

Mesoweb: Maya Archaeology Articles: Maya Archaeology 2: "The Name of Paper: The Mythology of Crowning and Royal Nomenclature on Palenque's Palace Tablet"; David Stuart; 2012

Google Books: "Maya Calendar Origins: Monuments, Mythistory, and the Materialization of Time"; Prudence M. Rice; 2007

The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Deity Face Pendant

Yale University Art Gallery: Warrior with Facial Decoration

Yale University Art Gallery: Pendant in the Shape of a Standing Ruler or Lord

Image Credit:

The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Deity Face Pendant

Yale University Art Gallery: Pendant in the Shape of a Standing Ruler or Lord

Yale University Art Gallery: Warrior with Facial Decoration

Resplendent Quetzal Feathers

A male resplendent quetzal. Photograph by
Andy Wraithmell.

Of the species of quetzal out there, it is the resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) whose habitat included -- and still includes -- Maya area. They live in the highlands, in the upper canopy of a type of forest called a cloud forest. They are shy, and their main food is fruit. (They especially like avocado.) Both males and females have, among their plumage, iridescent feathers.

The male of the resplendent quetzal was a bird the ancient Maya liked to find, as they would take the long feathers that grow on the top side of its tail's base. These feathers -- which are classified as "coverts" -- were not only very valuable to the Maya but was part of their culture in other ways too.

The Coverts of the Male Resplendent Quetzal
The male quetzal has different colors of feathers on different parts of its body -- some of these feathers are a bright green and are iridescent. (When something is iridescent, it means that it shows different colors, depending on how the light hits it.)  Some of male's coverts, which can grow as long as 3.3 feet (around 40 inches,) are among the iridescent feathers of the male resplendent quetzal.

Another shot of a male resplendent quetzal by Andy Wraithmell.

Sources don't always agree on what colors the iridescent feathers display. The general idea I've been able to gather is this: it seems that depending on the light, the feathers may appear to be green, yellow, or blue. (One description says the blue color shows up when the light isn't as bright.)

Trade
Mesoamericans everywhere thought the male resplendent quetzal's coverts were beautiful and traded for them. The northern highlands is a known location for ancient Maya who traded these feathers.

Quetzals are not easy to keep. So the ancient Maya had to go out and find the quetzals to take their coverts. (Coverts do grow back.) During the Postclassic Period, quetzal feathers became even more popular across Mesoamerica. Among the ancient Maya, only elites were allowed to have quetzal feathers. (The Bonampak Murals and stelae are places to look for examples of how the ancient Maya used quetzal feathers as headdresses.)

Sometimes in Classic Maya art, you see a ruler near a bundle of items -- it's a scene of the ruler getting tribute. Sometimes among the goods are quetzal feathers.

In Religion and in Rulership 
The ancient Maya also looked at the corn god as being connected with quetzal feathers (as well as jade.) One theory think's it's possible that the quetzal was a form of the maize god's (god E's) wife.

The resplendent quetzal's coverts were also connected to the Principal Bird Deity.  (The ancient Maya believed that this being had a number of connections, including a connection to valuable things.) Speaking of which, from the Preclassic Period onward, these feathers were a popular choice of feather for adding to ancient Maya rulers' headdresses. There's a theory that the feathers -- when used as part of headdresses, were a symbol of the Principal Bird Deity.)

Other than rulers, gods wearing headdresses with quetzal feathers are something you can find in ancient Maya art. (On a related note, the ancient Maya liked to draw quetzals and macaws together. It may be that the ancient Maya somehow thought of these two birds as connected.)

Consideration: As a Name
The word for quetzal in the ancient Mayan language used by the elites is k'uk'. Archaeologists have found that k'uk' was a word that rulers sometimes used as part of their titles as well as their names. One example of a ruler who had k'uk' in his name is a ruler of Copan called Yax K'uk' Mo'. Another example is a ruler of Palenque whose name glyph is a mix of k'uk' and the word for jaguar (bahlam) -- archaeologists have a number of names for him, including K'uk' Bahlam I and Kuk.


References:
Google Books: "Golden Kingdoms: Luxury Arts in the Ancient Americas"; 2017

Springer Link: "Human Ecology" volume 44, issue 4: "Birds of a Feather: Exploring the Acquisition of Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno) Tail Coverts in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica"; Cara Grace Tremain; August 2016

Hampshire College: “Birds and Environmental Change in the Maya Area”; Peter Stuart; May 2015
(Automatically downloads  to your computer)

"Google Books: DK Smithsonian "Wildlife of the World"; 2015

Cornell University: The Cornell Lab of Orinthology: Neotropical Birds: "Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno"; A. A. Dayer; 2010

Google Books: "Maya Sacred Geography and the Creator Deities"; Karen Bassie-Sweet; 2008

Google Books: "Animals & Plants of the Ancient Maya: A Guide"; Victoria Schlesinger; 2001

Google Books; "The A to Z of Ancient Mesoamerica"; Joel W. Palka; 2000

San Francisco State University: "The Biogeography of the Resplendent Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno)"; Paul Pribor; In progress 5/24/99

ResearchGate: "Revista de biologia tropical" Volume 42, Issue 2: "Spatial organization of the structural color system in the quetzal, Pharomachrus mocinno (Aves: Trogonidae) and evolutionary implications"; Julian Monge Nájera, Francisco Hernandez-Chavarria; January 1994

Mesoweb Encyclopedia: K'uk Bahlam I

Encyclopedia Britannica: Quetzal

Image Credit:
Flickr: "Resplendent Quetzal"; Andy Wraithmell; June 16, 2017

Flickr: "Resplendent Quetzal; Andy Wraithmell; June 16, 2017

The Principal Bird Deity

This is a censer stand from Guatemala 250 AD to 450 AD.
The face on it is the Principle Bird Deity's. From LACMA.

You can find it on the sarcophagus lid of Pakal, in the San Bartolo murals (on the West Wall) and other places. The Principal (or Principle) Bird Deity (or just the PBD) was a major god for a time in the ancient Maya civilization. Its heyday was the Preclassic Period and the Early Classic part of the Classic Period. The Maya connected this being with valuable things -- like jade -- as well as other things.

Features

Artists in the Classic Period tended to draw the Principal Bird Deity's face like this: its eyes (and its pupils) were square-shaped. Its face also has a "beak-snout." (Another description I came across says that the being has an upper lip that's long.) It was also popular to draw it with a beard that had jewels in it. (The Classic Period way of drawing this being's face is the same as the way that Classic Period Maya drew the face of a being called Ux Yop Huun -- also known as the Jester God. The ancient Maya saw a connection between these two beings, but archaeologists don't quite know what it was yet.)

Part of an image in the Met's

collection. The artifact dates 

to the 400s AD or to between 

350 AD and 550 AD. It has a two-

headed snake in its mouth. The 
two sources I found don't agree: only
one says it is the Principal Bird Deity.

As for its wings, sometimes the Maya drew things into them. One of these things was either snakes heads (from the side) or snake figures -- these are two separate descriptions, each from a different source. It may sound unusual to put snakes on wings, but the word for snake and sky are the same in Mayan writing, so it's possible that the snakes could actually represent the sky, in a way. Speaking of snakes, artists also liked to draw it having a snake in its mouth.

There are a number of important features that are related to its forehead and the top of its head. Its forehead has a mirror, and it may also have what's called an "ak'bal medallion." On top of its head, it may also have a shell ornament that's been carved -- it may have this and the medallion or just have either one. There are times where it wears a "ak'bal flower headdress," a headdress that Itzamná is commonly drawn wearing. 

There's a theory that this bird's appearance may have been based off of a real species of bird called the laughing falcon or guaco (Herpetotheres cachinnans.)

What It Was God Of

This jade figure (dated to the 200s AD to
500s AD) comes from Honduras is either of: 
a person impersonating the PBD, or a 
humanized version of the god. From the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The ancient Maya thought of the Principal Bird Deity as connected with the valuable things that the earth had to offer -- two examples are quetzal feathers and either maize or maize fields (I've seen both mentioned.) 

However, the strongest connection the ancient Maya made with the Principal Bird Deity was jade: they thought it was a living version of the mineral. (Another valuable thing the ancient Maya connected with this being was water, including rain -- this was because the ancient Maya's connections with jade included water.)

Rulers

Another association this god had was with rulers. By connecting themselves with the god, rulers were connecting themselves with control of valuable items -- as well as control of the economy.

Detail from a rectangular, ceramic
box that comes from Guatemala
and dates to between 450 AD and
550 AD. From LACMA.

The Principal Bird Deity was one of the gods that rulers would impersonate with the intention of being possessed. The point was to talk with the Principal Bird Deity, to get it to do things for the people. (Speaking of rulers and the Principal Bird Deity, artifacts depicting this deity were popular as grave goods for rulers.) 

Rulers are also shown wearing a headdress made of the Principal Bird Deity. This headdress was worn as part of them taking the throne -- and was a tradition that lasted from the Preclassic Period to the Early Classic.

And, on a related note, from what's been seen of ancient Maya art, rulers liked to include quetzal feathers in their headdresses. Used this way, it's possible the feathers were meant to be a symbol of the Principal Bird Deity.

The Sun
The ancient Maya in the Preclassic Period tended to connect the Principal Bird Deity with the sun more so than the ancient Maya in the periods that came after. (There's also a view that says this only may been what happened.) 


Itzamná 
The ancient Maya thought the Principal Bird Deity was a form of Itzamná. (No one knows for sure if the connection between the Principal Bird Deity and Itzamná started in the Classic Period. There's an idea that wonders if the belief that it was a form of Itzamná replaced the belief that it was connected with the sun. ) 

Archaeologists have found evidence that there were times where the Principal Bird Deity delivered messages for Itzamná. The name for the Principal Bird Deity as a messenger could be Muut Itzamnaaj. This phrase means "Itzamnaaj Bird."

There are some artifacts that say the Principal Bird Deity's name is Itzam Yej. This name is seen as evidence that connects the Principal Bird Deity with Itzamná. 

There's a possibility that Itzamná (god D) is actually a mix of yet another god, Pauahtun (god N,) and the Principal Bird Deity.

Creation Story
Another myth about the Principal Bird Deity has him being punished, and that his punishment was part of what happened before the creation of people. The Tablet of the Cross (at the site of Palenque) has a version of this creation myth. The tablet says that Hun Ajaw, one of the Hero Twins, was the one who punished the Principal Bird Deity -- who was self-centered enough to think it was bright enough to be a sun. After it was punished it used the World Tree to get to the sky. After all this, the real sun was able to rise.

If you've read about the Popol Vuh, then you probably are reminded of Seven Macaw (Wuqub Kaqix or Vucub Caquix.) Sometimes you may come across descriptions of the Principal Bird Deity that say this god is Seven Macaw. However, there is also a view that these beings were not the same, on account of how much of time that had passed.

Consideration
The name Principal Bird Deity is also a term used for other bird beings. Not a lot is known about these beings.


References:
Google Books: "Art and Myth of the Ancient Maya"; Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos"; 2017

Google Books: "The Origins of Maya States"; Loa P. Traxler, Robert J. Sharer (editors); 2016

Hampshire College: “Birds and Environmental Change in the Maya Area”; Peter Stuart; May 2015
(Automatically downloads  to your computer)

Google Books: "Maya Imagery, Architecture, and Activity: Space and Spatial Analysis in Art History"; Maline D. Werness-Rude, Kaylee R. Spencer (editors); 2015

LaGrange College: "Donning the Mask: Mayan Belief, Christianity and the Power of Syncretism"; Blakeley Coull; 2014

Leiden University: Leiden Repository "The Maya Ceramic Book of Creation: The Trials of the Popol Vuh Hero Twins Displayed on Classic Maya Polychrome Painted Pottery"; Laura Beukers; June 17, 2013

Mesoweb: Maya Archaeology Articles: "The Name of Paper: The Mythology of Crowning and Royal Nomenclature on Palenque’s Palace Tablet"; David Stuart; 2012

Google Books: "Spirit Possession and Exorcism: History, Psychology, and Neurobiology" volume 1 "Mental States and the Phenomenon of Possession"; Patrick McNamara; 2011

UC Riverside Electronic Theses and Dissertations: "A Study of Classic Maya Rulership"; Mark Alan Wright; January 1, 2011

MAYA VASE: "At the Court of Itzam Nah Yax Kokaj Mut: Preliminary Iconographic and Epigraphic Analysis of a Late Classic Vessel"; Erik Boot; October 30, 2008 

Google Books: "Ritual & Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art"; Julia Guernsey; 2006

Google Books: "The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives"; Heather McKillop; 2004

Metropolitan Museum of Art: Deity Figure

Metropolitan Museum of Art: Deity Face Pendant

Mesoweb: Lords of Creation: Supernatural Patrons

Image Credits:
LACMA: Censer Stand Depicting Principal Bird Deity

Metropolitan Museum of Art: Double Chambered Vessel

Metropolitan Museum of Art: Deity Figure

LACMA: Carved Box with Deities

Scribes

This image of a Classic Period vessel (specifically dated to between
600 AD and 900 AD) shows a scribe holding a container of paint. It comes from the
Mexican state of Campeche. From Yale University Art Gallery.

Ah tz'ib (also spelled ah tz'ib and ah ts'ib) -- a translation of this is "he who writes or paints." It is one of the terms the ancient Maya used for scribes. Scribes worked different kinds of materials to make images as well as inscriptions. They used their artistic skills to express information, including the activities of their rulers.

Job as a Scribe

A page from the Madrid Codex.
From An Introduction to the Study
of the Maya Hieroglyphs.

Scribes made messages and pictures with materials like limestone and stucco as well as in codices. Scribes got to be kind of artistic when it came to which version of glyphs to pick. (Archaeologists have found artifacts that scribes put their names on -- signing them. There are also artifacts where the scribes put in their family history too!) 

A page from the Dresden Codex.
From An Introduction to the Study
of the Maya Hieroglyphs.

Part of being a scribe meant learning a lot of different things . Scribes learned the calendar system, social rituals, different kinds of art, math, scientific information, and history as well as religious rituals and myths. They learned the language used by elites: and this was the language they wrote in -- though there are times when they slip into other ancient Maya languages. (These slips are thought to have been slips into the scribes' native languages.)

In the Late Classic, archaeologists know there were ranks for scribes. (And scribes could even have more than one title.) One title with a lot of status was aj kuju'un (spelled other ways, including ah k'u hun.) One translation of this term is "he of the holy books" and could mean something like "royal librarian." Only really good scribes were given this title. Scribes who had this title may have had a lot of responsibility -- they may have done things like make treaties, train other scribes, keep track of tribute, watch over rituals, and do marriage negotiations. They may also have been astronomers.  (Another of the titles in the Late Classic was itz'at, ("sage," "wiseman.") It was title that gave a scribe a lot of status.)

In the Classic Period, scribes had another job too, which they shared with other royalty: the job of warrior.

Tools
Ancient Maya scribes made their ink wells out of conch shells, which they cut in half. As for what they drew with, they used pens made of quills for thin lines, and brushes for thicker lines. For stone, scribes, of course, used chisels, themselves made of stone. 

Appearance
In ancient Maya art, there are certain features that you can search for to see if a person in the image you're looking at is a scribe. One is if there is stylized "paper" with spots that go out from under their arm. (An example of this "paper" can be seen in the image at the top of the post.) Another is if they're holding an ink well.

When drawn, an aj kuju'un has certain clothing. One is a sarong that is tied around the waist. The other was a headdress that these images wore. This headdress has a "stick bundle" set in a knot that is tied at the forehead; one of two items would be set into the headdress: a waterlily or a tool used for writing. (You may see a description of this headdress given to scribes in general.)

Consideration: Place in Society
There's some disagreement about whether or not scribes belonged to the elite -- they either may have been or were part of the elite. One view says that their families were royal: if you were a son of a ruler, but you weren't the "crown prince," then you would be a scribe. (However, there were also rulers who were scribes.)

Speaking of society, you may be wondering: were there female scribes?  This seems to depend somewhat. There isn't strong evidence for it, goes one line of thought. Another says that, among the scribes who were rulers, there were female scribe-rulers.

Gods Connected to Scribes

This vessel dates from around 700 AD to 800 AD, and was
made in Mexico. This side shows a monkey scribe god. (The
other shows K'awiil, who you may see called god K. From Yale
University Art Gallery.

Scribes -- and other ancient Maya who had jobs connected to art -- had monkey gods who were patron gods. These gods were believed in in both the Classic Period as well as -- at least in the northern lowlands -- the Postclassic Period.

Other than the monkey gods, the young aspect of the Maize God is thought to have been a patron god of scribes. Itzamná (god D)  A scribe himself, he was connected to lots of things, including scribes -- and may be a patron god of scribes. 

Other gods connected to scribes were the Paddler Gods and Pauahutun (god N.) A god known as the Fox God may have been a patron of scribes as well, though it may be he was really a patron of sculptors.

References:
Google Books: "World Prehistory and Archaeology: Pathways Through"; Michael Chazan; 2018

Google Books: "Philosophy of the Ancient Maya: Lords of Time"; Alexus McLeod; 2018

Google Books: "Art and Myth of the Ancient Maya"; Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos; 2017

University of Texas at Austin: SALSA: "The Scribe’s Hand Betrays His Tongue: Diglossia Among the Ancient Maya"; Mary Kate Kelly

Google Books: "Encyclopedia of the ancient Maya"; Walter R.T. Witschey (editor); 2016

Mesoweb: Ancient Cultures Institute: The PARI Journal 16, Volume 2; 2015; "The Maya Goddess of Painting, Writing, and Decorated Textiles"; Timothy W. Knowlton

Google Books: "Space and Sculpture in the Classic Maya City"; Alexander Parmington; 2011

Google Books: "The Technology of Maya Civilization: Political Economy and Beyond in Lithic Studies"; Zachary X Hruby, Geoffrey E. Brasswell, Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos (editors); 2011

Digital Collections at Texas State University: "Maya Scribes who would be Kings: Shamanism, the Underworld, and Artistic Production in the Late Classic Period "; Barry B. Kidder; December 2009

Google Books: "Maya Calendar Origins: Monuments, Mythistory, and the Materialization of Time"; Prudence M. Rice; 2007

Google Books: "The Ancient Maya" sixth edition; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006

University of Florida: "Mayan Writing"; Andrea M. Ranada
(Power Point that downloads.)

University of Maine Hudson Museum: The Underworld

Yale University Art Gallery: Vessel with Scribes

Image Credits:
Yale University Art Gallery: Vessel with Scribes

Yale University Art Gallery: Bowl with a Monkey Scribe and K’awiil, God of Lightning

Project Gutenberg: "An Introduction to the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs" Sylvanus Griswold Morley; 1915