The Madrid Codex -- once known as the Tro-Cortesiano Codex -- is one
of the four surviving codices from the ancient Maya civilization. It
was rediscovered in Europe in the 19th century, and is now in the
possession of the Museo Arqueológico, in Madrid.
Physical Features
The
codex is a 56 “page” work that was possibly produced by about 8 Mayan
scribes in the Postclassic period. It is page size measures about 5.72
by 9.44 inches, and when unfolded completely it reaches about 21.98
feet in length.
History of Rediscovery
Taken from
the Maya and ending up in Spain, rediscovery of the Madrid Codex
occurred in the mid to late 1800s. A man named Juan de Tro y Ortolano
once came possessed a manuscript, known as the Troano Codex. This codex
ended up in the Museo de América de Madrid when he died. Another man
named José Ignacio Miró bought another codex in 1872 that was known as
the Cortesiano Codex, and this too ended up in the museum. A third man,
Léon de Rosny went to see the Cortesiano Codex in the museum, and
discovered that these codices were in fact two parts of the same codex.
(This is why the Madrid Codex used to be known as the Tro-Cortesiano
Codex.)
However, the Madrid Codex may not be what it
seems. In 1999, an archaeologist -- also an author of books on the
ancient Maya -- named Michael Coe questioned the total authenticity of
the codex. Coe believes that page 56 has a piece of European-style
paper dating from 1600s. Despite this, the codex is still generally
understood to have been created before theConquest.
Contents
And what does the Madrid Codex contain?It has religious writing that ranges from information on divination and rituals (such as rituals to complete on New Year’s) to information on the beings called Pauahtuns -- gods of the cardinal directions. Astronomical information in the Madrid Codex includes astronomical tables, though it does not have as many as the Dresden Codex. It has almanacs on things such as marriage, weaving, deer trapping and hunting, beekeeping and how to make it rain.
References:
University of Arizona Libraries: Mayan Codex Facsimilies
"The Ancient Maya"; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
"Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World"; Lynn V. Foster; 2005
Monday, April 30, 2012
Wednesday, April 25, 2012
Cacao (Chocolate)
Author’s note: A lot of the information on how the Maya viewed and
ate and drank cacao comes from the Classic period. This is because
this period has the most text information from painted texts and
pictures on ceramics, which come from the context of what is
understood to be the elite class. The Maya codices, understood to be
from the Postclassic period, are another source of information on the
Maya view of cacao.
Other than corn, one of the foods most talked about when it comes to Maya cuisine is cacao. It comes from the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), also known as the chocolate tree. The ancient Maya cultivated the cacao tree for its fruit as well as for the fruit's seeds, which are the basic item required to make cacao. The ancient Maya viewed cacao as a precious substance, and used it as food as well as for religious and economic purposes.
The Tree
Found only in wet, tropical lowlands, the cacao is found in Mesoamerica and the Amazon Basin. The tree has leathery and long leaves and a wide trunk. The tree produces pink flowers on its trunk and branches—flowers whose smell repels human noses. After these bloom, the tree produces its edible, red-brown fruit pods with sweet flavored flesh and twenty to fifty seeds.
The ancient Maya, who in the Yucatan Peninsula at least, grew plantations of cacao trees, possessed methods to grow the trees well. They pruned the trees to make them grow more seedpods (this happens with some other plants as well), and they had to keep the trees out of direct sunlight.
History
It is understood that the ancient Maya began using cacao seeds as a food source 2,000 years ago or so. Based on a vessel with a spout that comes from Belize, cacao consumption started somewhere around 600 BC to around 400 BC.
Cacao usage has been found throughout the Classic period in the southern lowlands of the Maya world. But in the northern area of the Maya world, the Yucatan Peninsula, archaeologists have only found cacao consumption as far back as the Late Classic.
The Process
To begin the process of making cacao, the Maya first opened the seedpod and removed the seeds, which were white in color and bitter. Then they fermented the seeds for several days, decreasing the bitterness and bringing out the chocolate flavor. After fermentation, the seeds were roasted and shelled. The ancient Maya then mashed the seeds into a paste and it was this paste that they used for in food.
Four hundred seeds makes a pound of chocolate -- a bag of baking chips is about twelve or fourteen ounces, four to two less ounces than a pound. This means it takes about 10 to 20 pods to make a pound of chocolate.
Cacao Drinks and Foods
The ancient Maya made different kinds of drinks (hot and cold ones) via the medium of cacao. They would flavor their chocolate drinks with such things as chilies and seeds such as annatto. Another ingredient that the ancient Maya would sometimes use is honey.
Of the different kinds, a well-known kind of drink the ancient Maya made included chocolate and corn, and was a frothy/foamy drink that was savory. The foam was considered the best part of this drink.
However, drinks weren’t the only food the ancient Maya used cacao for. They also used cacao in gruels.
Containers
The vessels that the Maya used for the serving of cacao-based drinks come in a range of shapes. The most common kind of vessel the Maya used for chocolate is a basic cup. More rare is the spouted vessel that looks like a teapot.
Significance
In the ancient Maya religion, cacao seeds were a kind of offering to the gods. In the Popol Vuh – a book recording Quiche Maya myths – chocolate was something that came out of the mountain Paxil, when it broke open. Beyond mythological meaning, it is also understood that people drank the foamy chocolate drink during their wedding ceremony.
Other than having a religious significance, cacao also served a function in the ancient Maya economy: cacao seeds were used as a kind of currency.
Consideration
Some of what is known about what the Maya made using chocolate comes from chemical analysis of residues on the bottom of ceramics. Hershey Corporation was the first to discover the chemical signature of chocolate in 1990, using a lidded vessel discovered in Rio Azul.
References:
The Free Dictionary: Encyclopedia: Cacao
"Food, Farming and Hunting"; Emory Dean Keoke, Kay Marie Porterfield; 2005
"Chocolate - History, Culture, and Heritage"; Louis E. Grivetti, Howard-Yana Shapiro; 2011
Other than corn, one of the foods most talked about when it comes to Maya cuisine is cacao. It comes from the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), also known as the chocolate tree. The ancient Maya cultivated the cacao tree for its fruit as well as for the fruit's seeds, which are the basic item required to make cacao. The ancient Maya viewed cacao as a precious substance, and used it as food as well as for religious and economic purposes.
The Tree
Found only in wet, tropical lowlands, the cacao is found in Mesoamerica and the Amazon Basin. The tree has leathery and long leaves and a wide trunk. The tree produces pink flowers on its trunk and branches—flowers whose smell repels human noses. After these bloom, the tree produces its edible, red-brown fruit pods with sweet flavored flesh and twenty to fifty seeds.
The ancient Maya, who in the Yucatan Peninsula at least, grew plantations of cacao trees, possessed methods to grow the trees well. They pruned the trees to make them grow more seedpods (this happens with some other plants as well), and they had to keep the trees out of direct sunlight.
History
It is understood that the ancient Maya began using cacao seeds as a food source 2,000 years ago or so. Based on a vessel with a spout that comes from Belize, cacao consumption started somewhere around 600 BC to around 400 BC.
Cacao usage has been found throughout the Classic period in the southern lowlands of the Maya world. But in the northern area of the Maya world, the Yucatan Peninsula, archaeologists have only found cacao consumption as far back as the Late Classic.
The Process
To begin the process of making cacao, the Maya first opened the seedpod and removed the seeds, which were white in color and bitter. Then they fermented the seeds for several days, decreasing the bitterness and bringing out the chocolate flavor. After fermentation, the seeds were roasted and shelled. The ancient Maya then mashed the seeds into a paste and it was this paste that they used for in food.
Four hundred seeds makes a pound of chocolate -- a bag of baking chips is about twelve or fourteen ounces, four to two less ounces than a pound. This means it takes about 10 to 20 pods to make a pound of chocolate.
Cacao Drinks and Foods
The ancient Maya made different kinds of drinks (hot and cold ones) via the medium of cacao. They would flavor their chocolate drinks with such things as chilies and seeds such as annatto. Another ingredient that the ancient Maya would sometimes use is honey.
Of the different kinds, a well-known kind of drink the ancient Maya made included chocolate and corn, and was a frothy/foamy drink that was savory. The foam was considered the best part of this drink.
However, drinks weren’t the only food the ancient Maya used cacao for. They also used cacao in gruels.
Containers
The vessels that the Maya used for the serving of cacao-based drinks come in a range of shapes. The most common kind of vessel the Maya used for chocolate is a basic cup. More rare is the spouted vessel that looks like a teapot.
Significance
In the ancient Maya religion, cacao seeds were a kind of offering to the gods. In the Popol Vuh – a book recording Quiche Maya myths – chocolate was something that came out of the mountain Paxil, when it broke open. Beyond mythological meaning, it is also understood that people drank the foamy chocolate drink during their wedding ceremony.
Other than having a religious significance, cacao also served a function in the ancient Maya economy: cacao seeds were used as a kind of currency.
Consideration
Some of what is known about what the Maya made using chocolate comes from chemical analysis of residues on the bottom of ceramics. Hershey Corporation was the first to discover the chemical signature of chocolate in 1990, using a lidded vessel discovered in Rio Azul.
References:
The Free Dictionary: Encyclopedia: Cacao
"Food, Farming and Hunting"; Emory Dean Keoke, Kay Marie Porterfield; 2005
"Chocolate - History, Culture, and Heritage"; Louis E. Grivetti, Howard-Yana Shapiro; 2011
Friday, April 20, 2012
Short Count
Though the ancient Maya had been using the Period Ending version of the Long Count they eventually shortened it further by the Postclassic period. This even shorter version does not count a group of katuns like Period-Ending. The Short Count -- whose dates are called katun-ending dates -- only stated the date a katun ended and used a very simplified version of the Tzolkin. This second version was a cycle that didn’t repeat until 256.25 years had passed.
Setup
Instead of the regular way of counting the Tzolkin, days were counted using the numbers 1 through 13. Each day had the name Ahau, and was paired with a number between 1 through 13. But it wasn’t just a simple matter of successively counting higher to 13 and starting over. Each day skipped two numbers in the sequence.
An example of the way the Short Count’s dates are written goes like this: katun 13 Ahau. The next katun would be written katun 11 Ahau, after that would be katun 9 Ahau and so on. Once you get to katun 1 Ahau you count down two to get katun 12 Ahau, then 10 Ahau, et cetera.
Consideration
The Short Count is the kind of time keeping that the authors of books like the Chilam Balam used. In these books, the katun date would be recorded in the u cahlay katunob or the “count of the katuns”. Katuns were named after the last day that they fell on.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Setup
Instead of the regular way of counting the Tzolkin, days were counted using the numbers 1 through 13. Each day had the name Ahau, and was paired with a number between 1 through 13. But it wasn’t just a simple matter of successively counting higher to 13 and starting over. Each day skipped two numbers in the sequence.
An example of the way the Short Count’s dates are written goes like this: katun 13 Ahau. The next katun would be written katun 11 Ahau, after that would be katun 9 Ahau and so on. Once you get to katun 1 Ahau you count down two to get katun 12 Ahau, then 10 Ahau, et cetera.
Consideration
The Short Count is the kind of time keeping that the authors of books like the Chilam Balam used. In these books, the katun date would be recorded in the u cahlay katunob or the “count of the katuns”. Katuns were named after the last day that they fell on.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Sunday, April 15, 2012
Period Ending
As time passed and the ancient Maya civilization declined, the Long Count became less used in its full form. Instead a shorter form known as Period-Ending began to be used.
Setup
The ancient Maya used the Period-Ending version of the Long Count at least since around the Late Classic period. Period-ending dates counted katuns and the day the katuns ended on. Period-ending dates still used both calendars of the Calendar Round. The period-ending dates form a cycle that does not repeat for around 19,000 years.
An example of the period-ending date format goes like this. If it was the 8th katun and it ended on 4 Ahau 13 Cumku, then it would be written katun 8 4 Ahau 13 Cumku.
Consideration
The Period-Ending version was itself eventually replaced by an even shorter version of counting katuns. This second version is called the Short Count.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Setup
The ancient Maya used the Period-Ending version of the Long Count at least since around the Late Classic period. Period-ending dates counted katuns and the day the katuns ended on. Period-ending dates still used both calendars of the Calendar Round. The period-ending dates form a cycle that does not repeat for around 19,000 years.
An example of the period-ending date format goes like this. If it was the 8th katun and it ended on 4 Ahau 13 Cumku, then it would be written katun 8 4 Ahau 13 Cumku.
Consideration
The Period-Ending version was itself eventually replaced by an even shorter version of counting katuns. This second version is called the Short Count.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Thursday, April 5, 2012
The Ballgame
Author’s note: There are several things to keep in mind when reading this article. One is that most information, on the ballgame comes from the Classic period. Another is that some facts rely on an archaeologist’s ability to interpret the meaning of an inscription/mural properly, and that interpretations are subject to change.
 |
| One of multiple views of a vase that shows a ballgame happening. It was made anywhere from the the 600s AD to the 900s AD. From LACMA. |
The ballgame -- which was a part of cultures across all of Mesoamerica -- was an important part of ancient Maya society, varying somewhat depending on the area. To the ancient Mayas, the ballgame possessed religious and political purposes as well as a possible recreational purpose, though this is not known for sure.
Ball Court
The Maya began to build ballcourts in the Late Preclassic. Two kinds of ballcourt are known to exist, the L-shaped court and the I-shaped court. Of these two the Maya more often used the I-shaped one.
In the I-shaped court, two large, solid walls or benches were built parallel to each other, forming a long space (or alley) between them (the vertical bar of the “I”.) These walls could either be sloping or vertical and tended to be built facing north-south. At each end of this long space, there was another, smaller space, the short bars of the “I”, and these usually didn’t have anything built around them. The long space was where the ballgame was played in the court.
Despite the differences in layout (which also includes the fact that some had stone hoops while others do not), ballcourts did have similar features. Such similarities included inscriptions on the ball court walls, north-south orientation and placing the ballcourt in the middle of the city.
Playing Gear
Like in football, players of the ballgame wore protective gear while playing. Players wore padding on their arms and legs, and would also wear something on their ribs and waists to protect them.
 |
| A ceramic figurine from around 550 AD to 850 AD, from the Peten region (in Guatemala.) From LACMA. |
 |
| An image of the back of thefigurine as shown on the left. Also from LACMA. |
The ball of the ballgame was made of rubber. There was no regulation standard, and balls could be as large as a soccer ball or as small as a softball.
Rules of Play
Nobody alive knows all the rules for playing. It is possible that the rules changed with time. From what the archaeologists have seen through their studies, the games goes something like this: two teams of players tried to hit the rubber ball to the other team’s open space at the end of the alley.
 |
| This is a rollout of a vessel made in Honduras between 600 AD and 900 AD. From the Yale University Art Gallery. |
Significance
How was the ballgame religious or political? The religious aspect is thus: it is understood that ancient the Maya relied on reenacting mythological events as part of their rituals for keeping the world in balance. It is possible that ritual ballgames reenacted a myth in which two figures, the Hero Twins, defeated the Lords of Death in a ballgame. The ball court itself was a bridge between Middleworld (where people lived) and Xibalba, the Underworld (where the Lords of Death lived).
The political use of the ballgame was as a medium of conflict resolve. If there was an argument between two communities, it could be settled through a ballgame. An argument inside a community could be settled with a ballgame also.
Sacrifice and the Ballgame
Human sacrifice may have been part of the ballgame. However, it is not clear and sources do not always agree. Various claims have been asserted in different publications: some state the losers were sacrificed, while others state the winners were sacrificed. Still others state that it is unknown whether or not sacrifice was really part of the game at all.
References:
Google Books: "Space and Sculpture in the Classic Maya City"; Alexander Parmington; 2011
Google Books: "Do All Indians Live in Tipis?: Questions & Answers from the National Museum of the American Indian"; Smithsonian Institution; 2007
Google Books: "Handbook To Life In The Ancient Maya World"; Lynn V. Foster, Peter Mathews; 2005
University of Maine: William Palmer III Collection: Ballgame
Library of Congress: Pre-Contact America: Ritual, Ceremonies and Celebrations
The University of Arizona Press: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
University of Nevada, Las Vegas: Marjorie Barrick Museum: Mesoamerican Ballgame
El Pilar: Nohol Trail 11
LACMA: Vessel with Ballgame Scene
LACMA: Ballplayer Figurine in Costume
Image Credits:
LACMA: Vessel with Ballgame Scene
LACMA: Ballplayer Figurine in Costume
Yale University Art Gallery: Tripod Vessel with Ballplayers (fourth view)
Friday, March 30, 2012
Ancient Maya Featherwork
Like other Mesoamerican cultures such as the Aztecs the ancient Maya made use of feathers as a source of artistry and personal adornment. Though the feathers of Maya feather work have long since rotted away, there is some information on the subject.
Kinds of feathers
The Maya used different kinds of birds as their sources of feathers. Of the different feathers, tail feathers of the male quetzal -- which are a shade of iridescent green and can grow up to a meter long -- were seen as the most beautiful. They were traded from the Maya highlands to the rest of the Maya world and beyond. It is understood that commoners were not allowed to use quetzal feathers, only the royalty.
Obtaining Feathers
Often, the Maya would pluck the feathers off the bird and then let the bird go. The Quiche Maya even had aviaries (enclosures for birds) in order to have a supply of feathers for their creative endeavors.
Items
The ancient Maya incorporated feathers into clothing. They also used them to make decorations for spears and scepters, and in the making of fans, canopies, body ornaments, capes and shields.
Another use of feathers was in the making of headdresses. The ancient Maya made the headdresses by working feathers into wicker frames.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa. P. Traxler; 2006
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Sylvanus Griswold Morley; 1994
"Animals and Plants of the Ancient Maya: A Guide"; Victoria Schlesinger; 2001
"Mayas, Aztecs, Incas: Cooperative Learning Activities"; Mary Strohl, Susan Schneck; 1995
Kinds of feathers
The Maya used different kinds of birds as their sources of feathers. Of the different feathers, tail feathers of the male quetzal -- which are a shade of iridescent green and can grow up to a meter long -- were seen as the most beautiful. They were traded from the Maya highlands to the rest of the Maya world and beyond. It is understood that commoners were not allowed to use quetzal feathers, only the royalty.
Obtaining Feathers
Often, the Maya would pluck the feathers off the bird and then let the bird go. The Quiche Maya even had aviaries (enclosures for birds) in order to have a supply of feathers for their creative endeavors.
Items
The ancient Maya incorporated feathers into clothing. They also used them to make decorations for spears and scepters, and in the making of fans, canopies, body ornaments, capes and shields.
Another use of feathers was in the making of headdresses. The ancient Maya made the headdresses by working feathers into wicker frames.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa. P. Traxler; 2006
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Sylvanus Griswold Morley; 1994
"Animals and Plants of the Ancient Maya: A Guide"; Victoria Schlesinger; 2001
"Mayas, Aztecs, Incas: Cooperative Learning Activities"; Mary Strohl, Susan Schneck; 1995
Sunday, March 25, 2012
Maya Numbers
Our number system is based on 10. Ancient Mayans, like the Welsh, had a number system based on 20 (known as the vigesimal system). Here’s a look at the difference between the two systems:
Where we have 10, the ancient Maya had 20.
Where we have 100 (10 times 10) the ancient Maya had 400 (20 times 20).
Where we have 1,000 (100 times 10), the ancient Maya had 8,000 (400 times 20).
Where we have 10,000 (1,000 times 10), the ancient Maya had 160,000 (8,000 times 20).
This continues on for as long as there are numbers that can be counted to.
Number Glyphs
The Glyph for Zero
Different kinds of glyphs were used for 0 during the Classic period. This changed to the stylized shell in the Postclassic period.
Glyphs for Numbers One through Four
The glyph for number 1 is a dot, the glyph for 2 is represented by 2 dots, 3 is written with 3 dots and 4 dots represents the number 4.
The Glyph for Number Five
The glyph for number 5 is a bar. 10 is represented through a pair of bars, and 15 is a group of 3 bars.
Combining Dots and Bars
Dots and bars can be used to represent numbers 1 through 19. For example, 6 is represented by a bar and a dot. For larger numbers, the ancient Maya used a place notation system.
Ancient Mayan Place Notation System
Imagine a column divided horizontally at regular intervals. The lowest section is the 1s space, the second place is the 20s space, the third place is the 400s space, the fourth place is the 8,000s place, the fifth one is the 160,000s place. This is how the Maya wrote large numbers, instead of horizontally like we do.
Here is an example of how it works: envision the 8,000s space having a horizontal bar. That placement makes 40,000 because 8,000 times 5 equals 40,000.
For another example, envision the 1s space has a bar and the 20s space has a dot. That makes the number 25 because 1 x 5 + 20 x 1 = 25.
A third example: imagine the 1s space has 4 dots, the 20s space has two bars and a dot and the 400s space has 4 dots. This makes 1,824 because
400 x 4 = 1,600
20 x 11 = 220
1 x 4 = 4
Add these numbers together and you get 1,824.
References:
"The Ancient Maya"; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
University of Nevada, Las Vegas: Marjorie Barrick Museum: Mayan Math
Where we have 10, the ancient Maya had 20.
Where we have 100 (10 times 10) the ancient Maya had 400 (20 times 20).
Where we have 1,000 (100 times 10), the ancient Maya had 8,000 (400 times 20).
Where we have 10,000 (1,000 times 10), the ancient Maya had 160,000 (8,000 times 20).
This continues on for as long as there are numbers that can be counted to.
Number Glyphs
The Glyph for Zero
Different kinds of glyphs were used for 0 during the Classic period. This changed to the stylized shell in the Postclassic period.
Glyphs for Numbers One through Four
The glyph for number 1 is a dot, the glyph for 2 is represented by 2 dots, 3 is written with 3 dots and 4 dots represents the number 4.
The Glyph for Number Five
The glyph for number 5 is a bar. 10 is represented through a pair of bars, and 15 is a group of 3 bars.
Combining Dots and Bars
Dots and bars can be used to represent numbers 1 through 19. For example, 6 is represented by a bar and a dot. For larger numbers, the ancient Maya used a place notation system.
Ancient Mayan Place Notation System
Imagine a column divided horizontally at regular intervals. The lowest section is the 1s space, the second place is the 20s space, the third place is the 400s space, the fourth place is the 8,000s place, the fifth one is the 160,000s place. This is how the Maya wrote large numbers, instead of horizontally like we do.
Here is an example of how it works: envision the 8,000s space having a horizontal bar. That placement makes 40,000 because 8,000 times 5 equals 40,000.
For another example, envision the 1s space has a bar and the 20s space has a dot. That makes the number 25 because 1 x 5 + 20 x 1 = 25.
A third example: imagine the 1s space has 4 dots, the 20s space has two bars and a dot and the 400s space has 4 dots. This makes 1,824 because
400 x 4 = 1,600
20 x 11 = 220
1 x 4 = 4
Add these numbers together and you get 1,824.
References:
"The Ancient Maya"; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
University of Nevada, Las Vegas: Marjorie Barrick Museum: Mayan Math
Thursday, March 15, 2012
Codices: The Books of the Maya
The Maya crafted accordion-style books on what is called copo (or amatl in the Nahuatl language) -- paper created from the inside bark of fig trees -- whose pages they thinly coated with lime plaster. Instead of printing, Maya scribes would draw information and pictures of activities ranging from religious duties of the priests to crop production. Today, these books are called codices.
There are not many codices around now however. Due to the tropical climate of some areas of the Maya world, codices tended to rot away after a time -- though fragments of codices have been found in tombs. Also, after the Conquest, Franciscan “missionaries” such as Bishop Diego de Landa ordered Maya codices to be burned. Despite the climate
and the burn order, so far four codices have been brought to light.
These four codices are the Dresden Codex, the Paris Codex, the Madrid Codex and the Grolier Codex. This last codex was discovered fairly recently, in 1971. These surviving codices contain information on Maya rituals, divination and astronomy but do not contain much historical information.
University of Arizona Libraries: Mayan Codex Facsimiles
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Palomar College: Wayne's Word: Stranglers and Banyans
There are not many codices around now however. Due to the tropical climate of some areas of the Maya world, codices tended to rot away after a time -- though fragments of codices have been found in tombs. Also, after the Conquest, Franciscan “missionaries” such as Bishop Diego de Landa ordered Maya codices to be burned. Despite the climate
and the burn order, so far four codices have been brought to light.
These four codices are the Dresden Codex, the Paris Codex, the Madrid Codex and the Grolier Codex. This last codex was discovered fairly recently, in 1971. These surviving codices contain information on Maya rituals, divination and astronomy but do not contain much historical information.
University of Arizona Libraries: Mayan Codex Facsimiles
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Palomar College: Wayne's Word: Stranglers and Banyans
Saturday, March 10, 2012
Puuc Architecture
Puuc is a term used for one of the various styles of architecture that Maya developed before the arrival of the Spanish. Puuc -- or “low range of hills” -- was in vogue in the Yucatan Peninsula from around 770 to 1000 AD, (as around 1000 AD the Maya had abandoned the Puuc style sites.) Sites known for their Puuc style architecture include the cities of Sayil, Kabah, Uxmal and Labna.
Basic Setup
The Puuc style takes a building made from stones held together by a lime-based concrete and uses it as a “core” for the building. Over this core, thin pieces of cut stone are set to form a decorative veneer. Usually, only the top half of Puuc style buildings are decorated with the veneer, leaving the bottom half un-embellished.
Veneer Features
Veneer designs used for Puuc buildings include lattices made of “x” shaped stones and stepped frets -- a series of connected blocky spirals -- and also Chac masks -- which themselves are made of several pieces. Another mosaic piece this style makes use of is the engaged column, which isn’t a real column, but has a flat back that is attached to the wall. These designs would be combined in various ways to form the ultimate veneer.
Corbel Arch
The corbel arch is another part of Puuc architecture. It is made with “boot-shaped” stones to create an arch with a stepped appearance. Not to be confused with a “true” arch, the stones of the corbel arch do not use each other to hold each other up (and therefore, the corbel arch does not need a keystone.)
Alignment Features
Puuc style buildings tend to be aligned so that they all face the central plaza that was used for ritual purposes. The ceremonial centers in Puuc style sites are aligned to be 14 degrees to the right (east) of north.
Hybridization
The Puuc style wasn’t always used by itself. Sites exist that are a blend of Puuc style and a style that could be a northern Mexican style. One example is Chichen Itza, which was controlled by the Toltec people for a time. Chichen Itza contains both older buildings of purely Puuc (“Classic Puuc”) architecture and newer buildings of Puuc hybrid architecture. The Classic Puuc architecture is found in the southern area of the city, while the newer, hybrid buildings are found in the northern area of the city. However, it is possible that some of what looks like it came from northern Mexico could have just been invented in Chichen Itza.
References:
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style Facades
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style Facades II
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style Vaults
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc/Mexican Style
"The Ancient Maya"; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Basic Setup
The Puuc style takes a building made from stones held together by a lime-based concrete and uses it as a “core” for the building. Over this core, thin pieces of cut stone are set to form a decorative veneer. Usually, only the top half of Puuc style buildings are decorated with the veneer, leaving the bottom half un-embellished.
Veneer Features
Veneer designs used for Puuc buildings include lattices made of “x” shaped stones and stepped frets -- a series of connected blocky spirals -- and also Chac masks -- which themselves are made of several pieces. Another mosaic piece this style makes use of is the engaged column, which isn’t a real column, but has a flat back that is attached to the wall. These designs would be combined in various ways to form the ultimate veneer.
Corbel Arch
The corbel arch is another part of Puuc architecture. It is made with “boot-shaped” stones to create an arch with a stepped appearance. Not to be confused with a “true” arch, the stones of the corbel arch do not use each other to hold each other up (and therefore, the corbel arch does not need a keystone.)
Alignment Features
Puuc style buildings tend to be aligned so that they all face the central plaza that was used for ritual purposes. The ceremonial centers in Puuc style sites are aligned to be 14 degrees to the right (east) of north.
Hybridization
The Puuc style wasn’t always used by itself. Sites exist that are a blend of Puuc style and a style that could be a northern Mexican style. One example is Chichen Itza, which was controlled by the Toltec people for a time. Chichen Itza contains both older buildings of purely Puuc (“Classic Puuc”) architecture and newer buildings of Puuc hybrid architecture. The Classic Puuc architecture is found in the southern area of the city, while the newer, hybrid buildings are found in the northern area of the city. However, it is possible that some of what looks like it came from northern Mexico could have just been invented in Chichen Itza.
References:
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style Facades
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style Facades II
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc Style Vaults
University of Idaho: Non-Western Architecture: Puuc/Mexican Style
"The Ancient Maya"; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
Monday, March 5, 2012
Calendar Series 6 of 6 -- Other Calendars
Other than the Calendar Round and Long Count, the ancient Maya used other systems for guiding their culture, which archaeologists understand to varying degrees. These “calendars” include the cycle of Venus, the Lords of the Night sequence, the 819-day count, the cycle of the moon and possibly the cycle of Mars.
Venus
Ancient Maya astronomers appear to have calculated Venus’s cycle this way: it rose as the Morning Star for 236 days, disappeared after this for 90 days, rose as the Evening Star for 250 days and disappeared for 8 days before becoming the Morning Star again. This makes a total of 576 days.
However the way the ancient Maya calculated Venus’s cycle does not accurately reflect what happens. Venus actually goes through a cycle that varies from 580, 587, 583, 583 and 587 days for an average of 583.92 days per cycle. It is the Morning Star for around 240 days, disappears for about 90 days, is the Evening Star for around 240 days, disappears again for 14 days and finally is the Morning Star again.
Moon
The ancient Maya kept track of the moon, calculating lunar months. As the lunar month equals about 29.53059 days, the ancient Maya tried to figure out a way to calculate the lunar month in terms of whole numbers and succeeded. They found that 4,400 days is very close to 149 lunar months (4,440/149 = about 29.53020). Seven pages of the Dresden Codex talk about lunar months. You can see records of the moon in inscriptions of the Long Count.
K’awiil 819-Day Cycle
Mayan gods could have multiple forms or “aspects”. K’awiil (also known as God K to archaeologists) is a god believed to be a lightning god and possibly a patron god of kings. It is also understood that he had four aspects, each connected to a color and direction: red is paired with west, white with north, black with west and yellow with south.
The 819-day cycle -- which may have begun at Palenque -- associated with these four aspects. When expressed, the 819-day count goes like this: a glyph could be a verb comes first, then a number in the 819-day cycle, followed by a reference to K’awiil, then a cardinal direction and then a color. The purpose of this “calendar” is not fully understood, It is possible that it was used for rituals.
Nine Lords of the Night
This “calendar” is understood to be nine-day cycle of the Nine Lords of the Night -- the gods of Xibalba, the Maya underworld. Each of the nine gods took his turn being connected to a day. Though not entirely clear, in Long Count inscriptions there are two glyphs that they think are connected to the sequence of the Lords of the Night. The Lords of the Night glyphs are numbered G1 through G9.
Mars
In the Dresden Codex there is a table that talks about numbers that are multiples of 78. Mars has a synodical period of approximately 780 days, so it is possible that the ancient Maya kept track of Mars cycle in the sky.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
“Understanding Maya Inscriptions”; John Ferguson Harris, Stephen K. Stearns; 1997
"Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World"; Lynn V. Foster, Peter Mathews; 2005
"Yaxchilan: The Design of a Ceremonial City";Caroline Elaine Tate; 1992
Venus
Ancient Maya astronomers appear to have calculated Venus’s cycle this way: it rose as the Morning Star for 236 days, disappeared after this for 90 days, rose as the Evening Star for 250 days and disappeared for 8 days before becoming the Morning Star again. This makes a total of 576 days.
However the way the ancient Maya calculated Venus’s cycle does not accurately reflect what happens. Venus actually goes through a cycle that varies from 580, 587, 583, 583 and 587 days for an average of 583.92 days per cycle. It is the Morning Star for around 240 days, disappears for about 90 days, is the Evening Star for around 240 days, disappears again for 14 days and finally is the Morning Star again.
Moon
The ancient Maya kept track of the moon, calculating lunar months. As the lunar month equals about 29.53059 days, the ancient Maya tried to figure out a way to calculate the lunar month in terms of whole numbers and succeeded. They found that 4,400 days is very close to 149 lunar months (4,440/149 = about 29.53020). Seven pages of the Dresden Codex talk about lunar months. You can see records of the moon in inscriptions of the Long Count.
K’awiil 819-Day Cycle
Mayan gods could have multiple forms or “aspects”. K’awiil (also known as God K to archaeologists) is a god believed to be a lightning god and possibly a patron god of kings. It is also understood that he had four aspects, each connected to a color and direction: red is paired with west, white with north, black with west and yellow with south.
The 819-day cycle -- which may have begun at Palenque -- associated with these four aspects. When expressed, the 819-day count goes like this: a glyph could be a verb comes first, then a number in the 819-day cycle, followed by a reference to K’awiil, then a cardinal direction and then a color. The purpose of this “calendar” is not fully understood, It is possible that it was used for rituals.
Nine Lords of the Night
This “calendar” is understood to be nine-day cycle of the Nine Lords of the Night -- the gods of Xibalba, the Maya underworld. Each of the nine gods took his turn being connected to a day. Though not entirely clear, in Long Count inscriptions there are two glyphs that they think are connected to the sequence of the Lords of the Night. The Lords of the Night glyphs are numbered G1 through G9.
Mars
In the Dresden Codex there is a table that talks about numbers that are multiples of 78. Mars has a synodical period of approximately 780 days, so it is possible that the ancient Maya kept track of Mars cycle in the sky.
References:
“The Ancient Maya”; Robert J. Sharer, Loa P. Traxler; 2006
“Understanding Maya Inscriptions”; John Ferguson Harris, Stephen K. Stearns; 1997
"Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World"; Lynn V. Foster, Peter Mathews; 2005
"Yaxchilan: The Design of a Ceremonial City";Caroline Elaine Tate; 1992
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